F. Galerius Aurelianus flamen Cerialis G. Livio Crasso. Salve
This might seem like a dopey question but how are the augeries
taken? I appreciate that it's about watching the flight of birds
i.e. how high / low and what direction they're flying etc, but what
are the good or bad signs?
G. Livius Crassus
ON AUGURIES
"Acting on presages lies within our power, and their value
depends on the way in which they are interpreted Â…"
Pliny the Elder Natural History 28, 17
Contributed by Marcvs Moravivs Horativs Piscinvs
Background
The art of augury concerns the taking and interpreting signs from
nature in order to determine the will of the gods. Chrysippus
(2.130) defined divination as the "power to see, to understand, to
interpret the signs that are given to men by the gods." But augury
is not a form of divination as we usually think of such, in that it
does not attempt to foretell future events. Instead a course of
action is proposed, such as the planning of a wedding or plans to
erect a public building, and the gods are consulted as to whether
they approve or not.
More specifically, augury concerns signs brought from the gods by
birds. Augury is therefore distinct from haruspicy, which looks at
the entrails (exta) of sacrificial animals to see if they had been
acceptable to the gods (see modern method of haruspicy in Art of
Harupsicy page). The Etruscans were credited with bringing haruspicy
to Rome. They were also said to have brought to Rome their form of
augury. But there is a notable difference between the Etruscan
practices and those found at Rome (Cicero: On Divination 1.41, 2.35,
38; On the Nature of the Gods II.4).
The Etruscans employed ostentaria that notes the direction from
which certain birds call. The Romans noted the oscines as well, but
also watched for the flights of birds. The use of the flight of
birds as omens was common in other parts of Italy as well as in
Greece and the Near East (Cicero, On Divination 1.92). The earliest
mention of augury is found in Homer's Iliad, dating to around 700
BCE. That is not to say that the Romans adopted their particular
form of augury from others, for there are some differences between
the Roman practice and elsewhere.
For example the Greeks regarded signs on the right to be favourable,
whereas in Roman practice the left was considered favourable. In the
Libri Fulgurales the Etruscans recorded those omens concerning the
direction from which thunder could be heard and lightning seen. The
sky was divided into sixteen regions for divining, and eleven
different kinds of lightning were recognized by the Etruscan, each
wielded by a different god. The Romans adopted a similar method from
the Etruscans that they included alongside their other forms of
augury, but recognized only three gods and one goddess as wielders
of lightning – Iuppiter, Veiovis, Summanus, and Minerva. (Pliny,
Natural History II.138 only recognized Iuppiter and Summanus.) While
the Romans greatly acknowledged the Etruscan influence, what they
borrowed from their northern neighbors was only accretions on a
traditional core of practices that were essentially Italic in
origin.
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The Roman form of augury was said to have begun with Attus Navius
around 600 BCE. According to legend, Navius was a swineherd who
owned a vineyard. One day when he lost one of his pigs, he prayed to
the Lares that if they would assist him in finding the pig, he would
sacrifice his choicest bunch of grapes to them. The next day the pig
was found. Going to the center of his vineyard, Attus Navius used
his swineherd's staff to divide his vineyard into four quarters. He
then noticed that the birds favoured one particular quarter. He went
to the center of this quarter and again using his staff he divided
it into another four quarters. Again the birds favoured one
quarter, and so he again divided that section of his vineyard into
four sections. Proceeding in this manner he discovered an enormous
bunch of grapes, which he then sacrificed to the Lares. News of this
spread to Navius' neighbors who then began to consult with him.
Thereby Navius gained a reputation as an augur. When news of Navius
reached the king of Rome, Tarquinius Priscus, he was called upon to
take the auspices for an important matter.
Tarquinius wished to create new centuries of cavalry in addition to
the three existing ones of the Ramnes, Titienses and Luceres,
established by Romulus. Navius found that all the omens were
unfavourable to Tarquin's plan. This angered the king, who mockingly
demanded that Navius, "Come then, prophet, divine by your augural
art whether it is possible to do what I am thinking of at this
moment." Navius took the auspices and reported that whatever the
king was thinking would in fact come to pass. Tarquinius said, "Well
then, I was thinking of you cutting a whetstone in half with a
razor. Fetch them at once and perform what your birds declare can be
done." Navius did as he was told and cut the whetstone in half. A
statue of Navius with his head veiled was erected in the comitium to
the left of the Senate House, along with the whetstone, and he went
on to serve as the official augur (Livy, A.U.C. I.36.2-6).
Any paterfamilias was able to take auspices for private ceremonies.
Most commonly private auspices were taken when marriages were
proposed. For the auspicia publica, however, only the highest
magistrates were permitted. The magistrates represented the state
and thus acted on behalf of all of Rome whenever the gods were
consulted. The power to take auspices was transferred from one
magistrate to the next; that is, after an official was elected he
had to perform a special augury to see if the gods approved his
election. If the omens were good he was then "inaugurated" into
office. The magistrates also took the auspices whenever the various
comitia and Senate were to meet, whenever the erection of a temple
or other public building was proposed, or whenever the Romans were
about to go to war. Magistrates also commanded the Roman armies,
and auspices were taken prior to engaging in any battle. In taking
the auspicia publica the magistrates were assisted by various
priests.
Augures were on hand for interpreting the calls and flights of
birds. As sacrifices were often made along with the taking of
auspices, Haruspices were present for reading entrails. Fulgatores
might be present should any lighting and thunder occur that would
need interpreting. Always present for auguries were the tibicines
(flute-players) who played throughout the ceremony. Originally at
Rome there seems to have been two official augurs established as a
collegium during the regal period. These were increased to four,
and later to nine by the inclusion of five plebeian augurs in 300
BCE. The augurs did not themselves conduct the ceremony of taking
auspices. Their role was mainly to oversee that the ceremony was
conducted properly especially in establishing a templum, to point
out certain possible omens to a magistrate, and to interpret omens
as might appear.
Very early in the history of the Roman Republic members of the
patrician order put forward a claim that only patricians could act
as mediators between the gods and men, and that therefore only
patricians could take the auspices (Livy: IV.2, VI.41; X.8). The
issue first arose when a new law was included in the Twelve Tablets
in 450 BCE that outlawed intermarriage between patricians and
plebeians. A special marriage ceremony was held for patricians
called a confarreatio in which the taking of auspices was part of
the ceremony. There is really nothing to suggest that plebeians did
not conduct confarreatio ceremonies as well, whereas there is
everything to suggest that confarreatio was conducted for marriages
between patricians and plebeians prior to the introduction of the
Twelve Tablets.
Intermarriage between patricians and plebeians was commonly
practiced before 450 BCE. This particular law was then overturned in
445 BCE with the passage of the Lex Canuleia. Patricians continued
to insist that only they could take auspices and tried to use that
excuse to exclude plebeians from magistracies, prevent the comitia
plebis from meeting, and to veto plebiscita passed in the comitia.
However the very first consul of the Roman Republic, L. Junius
Brutus, was a plebeian, as were possibly as many as fifteen other
consuls between 509 and 445 BCE. Plebeian rights to hold the highest
magistracies were guaranteed under a series of laws: quaestores were
already being elected by the plebeians in 447 BCE, the Leges
Liciniae-Sextae for consuls in 367 BCE, dictator in 356, censor in
351, lex Genucia for consuls again in 342, Lex Ovinia of 339
required plebeian inclusion in the Senate, praetorship by 337 BCE.
The comitia plebis was first organized in 494 BCE during the first
secessio of the plebeians. It met without a requirement for
auspicia publica. With the Lex Icilia of 471, magistrates were no
longer able to interrupt its proceedings.
Thus patrician augurs could not use the excuse of bad omens to
prevent the plebeians from holding their councils. Patrician veto
over the Comitia Centuriata, another assembly of the people composed
of both patricians and plebeians, was next cancelled in 339 when the
requirement of the patrum auctoritas in advance of votes on laws was
then proscribed. With the passage of the Leges Ogulniae in 300 BCE
the collegium of augurs was opened to plebeians so that the four
patrician augurs were then joined by five plebeian augurs. Thus the
repeated claim by some patricians that only they had a right to take
auspices was generally ignored during the history of the Roman
Republic and finally made mute. (See Religions of Rome, May Beard
et al, p.64.)
When to take Auguries
For certain events affecting an entire society auspicia publica
should be taken. This would include after the election of public
magistrates to see that they are acceptable to the gods. The same
should be made for elected officials of any sodalitas. If only
auspices of the gods' disapproval are obtained, or if something
should vitiate the auspices, then the official-elect is obliged to
withdraw and another election held. Even if it is later discovered
that the favorable auspices were performed improperly, the
magistrate is to resign his or her office (Cicero: On the Nature of
the Gods II.10-12). If bad omens occur along with approving auspices
the elected official may take office and special rites conducted to
attain divine assistance during their tenure. (See below on more
details on mixed omens.) When a call is made for the assembly of any
comitia auspices should be taken, but the assembly of the comitia
cannot be prevented by bad omens. The assembly of the Senate does
not require auspices be taken. Any decision made or leges passed by
the comitia or Senate does not generally require auspices be taken.
However, decisions to erect temples or other special public
facilities, or decisions on joining with other societies, or on
sending or receiving ambassadors, do require the taking of auspices.
Treaties, alliances, and declarations of war cannot be finalized
until the auspices are taken and the gods signify their approval. If
the auspices indicate disapproval of a proposal to build a temple or
other public facility, then it should be determined whether the
chosen site or some other aspect of the proposal needs to be
altered, and auspices taken again.
Private auspices should be taken whenever major decisions affecting
the patrimony of a family are to be made. This would include
proposed marriages (Cicero: On Divination 1.16) or plans to buy,
sell, or build on any property. At other times, whenever a special
request is made of the gods, then auspices may be taken in private
to see if the gods will approve of the request. Such requests are
usually made by a do ut des formula, and thus it may be required to
take auspices to see if the proposed action is sufficient to please
the god(s) who are being asked the favor. Individuals may also want
to take auspices when considering major decisions in their personal
lives.
Performing an augury
The first step in observing auspices is to select a spot of high
ground. At Rome the tale is told of how Romulus took auspices for
the founding of the city while seated on the Palatine Hill; Remus
also took auspices on the Aventine Hill. Later when the Latins and
Sabines united, Romulus established the Auguraculum upon the Arx,
the northern summit of Mons Saturni now known as the Capitoline
Hill. The Sabines on the collis Latiaris established another
auguraculum, which is the southern most point on the Quirinal. This
Auguraculum Quirnale is mentioned only by Varro (L.L. V.5.2). At
these established auguracula it was not necessary to make the first
step of drawing out a templum for where the ceremony would be held.
In military camps augurale were similarly established (Tacitus:
Annales II.13, XV.30). But each time the Comitia Centuriata was to
be called a new templum would have to be drawn in the Campus
Martius, and the same would hold true for any other occasion.
A spot is selected to mark out a templum on the ground, drawing out
first the cardo running east and west, then the decumanus running
north and south, according to astronomical observations. The same is
described for laying out an estate, as Pliny mentions (NH XVIII.76-
77), or a military camp, a colony or a city. The cardo is determined
by the point on the horizon where the sun rises and sets, altering
through the seasons, and not by determining the true east-west
direction. The decumanus is determined by observing Polaris and not
by employing a compass. Then two sets of parallel lines are drawn to
form a rectangle in a proportion of 6:5. At the center of the
templum the Romans would erect a tabernaculum, a square tent with
its opening facing south.
The magistrate taking the auspices is referred to as an auspex,
distinct from the augurs who interpret the signs (Cicero: On
Divination 1.48; On the Nature of the Gods II.3; On the Laws II.13).
The auspex sits out in front of the tabernaculum, usually near the
edge of a hilltop, while his assistants and the tibicines and
tibicinae will stand within. The purpose of the tabernaculum was to
avoid the auspex from being distracted by auspicia oblativa, or
naturally occurring omens, and that he might concentrate on the
auspicia imperitiva being sought in the sky (see below).
Throughout the ceremony the tibicines and tibicinae are to play
their flutes. Mention is made in the ancient texts that this was
done to prevent the magistrate from being interrupted by the sounds
of any ill omens. However there may have been more to this and the
flute players might have also been present to draw birds to the
templum. It was normal practice to have tibicnes and tibicinae play
during any Roman ceremony, as a way of pleasing the gods. The first
step in the ceremony would be to perform a libation to Iuppiter,
stating the reason that auspices are being taken and asking that He
give his approval. Only Iuppiter sends the birds to act as
messengers of the gods in public auguries (Cicero: On Divination
2.34, Aves internuntiae Jovis; On the Laws II.8, Interpretes Jovis
optimi maximi publici augures). For private auguries other gods or
goddesses may be called upon and a sacrifice would then be offered
to them. One emblem of an augur is the special earthen vessel
(capis) used in making this libation. Incense and flute music are
also offered as a part of this opening sacrifice.
Next the magistrate would employ his lituus to designate another
templum in the sky. A lituus is a special wand of augury, made from
a tree branch (possibly ash or hazel) without any knots and with one
end naturally curled. With the lituus he would again draw out a
templum by designating the cardo and decumanus. One formula has the
auspex call out, "This shall be to my left is the East, and this to
my right shall be the West. This before me is South, that behind me
is North." Then the enclosing sides are drawn. The boundaries of
this celestial templum are designated by the auspex in calling out
points of reference on the ground. Varro says that different
formulas were used to designate a templum, and offers one such
formula as was used on the Arx:
"Let the boundaries of my templa and the wild lands (tesca) be as I
declare them with my words. That tree of whatever kind it is which I
deem myself to have named, let it be the boundary of my templum and
the wild land to the right. That tree, of whatever kind it is,
insofar as I deem myself to have named it, let it be the boundary of
my temple and the wild land on the left. Between these points I
have established the templa and the wild lands by means of directing
(conregione), viewing (conspicione), reflecting (cortumiones) as far
as I have been most rightly aware of it within this limit." (Varro:
On the Latin Language, VII.8)
The plural form is used here, seemingly making each boundary line a
templum. Varro goes on by quoting from Ennius' play
Medea, "Contemplate and see the templum of Ceres on the leftÂ…" to
draw a parallel between the words contemplate (contempla) and
templa. The formula also mentions the plural form tesca that is
translated as "wild lands" but these are rural sanctuaries of gods.
The area within the boundaries of the rectangular templum is divided
into four quarters by the cardo and decumanus, and there were
further divisions, to a total of sixteen, each division dedicated to
a particular divinity. A similar practice is found in the Etruscan
practice of haruspicy where the liver of a sacrificial animal is
divided into sixteen sections, each associated with a particular
divinity. This formula by Varro seems to indicate that other regions
beyond the designated templum were also associated with divinities.
The cardinal directions marked out above were associated with light
and life in the East, darkness and death in the West, the abode of
the gods was held to be in the North, while the South was associated
with the lower regions of the earth and below.
Once the templum is established, the auspex would then
pray, "Juppiter Optimus Maximus, and all You other gods and spirits
whom it is proper to invoke, I ask that if it is good and right that
(the proposed action) be done, that You will send clear and certain
signs within the boundaries that I have marked." Here the auspex may
specify the kinds of signs he wishes to appear within the templum he
has marked out. These become the auspicia impeeritiva that he must
watch for. He may also designate other signs that he will ignore,
whether within or outside the templum. These, together with all
other omens, become auspicia oblativa, and while they may be noted
and used in clarifying more details about the augury, they are not
to be considered as omens specifically answering the question posed.
The auspex then awaits the auspices by watching the sky (sevare de
caelo) for signs (spectio). This was to be done without interruption
(silentium; silentio surgere) and anything that might make the
augury invalid was called a vitium. For the auspices taken for
inaugurating an official, the templum that was drawn and established
on the ground might be made after midnight, where the auspex would
remain in contemplation and offering sacrifices to the gods. Just
before dawn he would then draw the templum in the sky and begin to
look for signs.
The signs used in augury
Roman augury observed the birds. Only the flight of certain birds
(alites) was noted as signs in augury. These were mainly eagles and
vultures. Pliny recognized six kinds of eagles (Natural History X.6-
7), the black eagle, hare-eagle, morphos or Homer's dusky eagle
(Iliad XXIV.316), the hawk-eagle or mountain stork that he says is
like a vulture, the sea eagle, and what he refers to as the true
eagle, being reddish in colour and of medium size. Other alites were
the osprey (avis sanqualis or ossifraga) and the immusculus.
(Virgil: Aeneid I.394; Livy 1.7, 34; Pliny: Natural History X.7) The
other form of augury employed the call of certain birds (oscines).
These were mainly owls, ravens, crows, and chickens. Some birds were
used for both. Of the call of ravens, Pliny says that the worse
message is when they make a plaintive "whine, as though they were
being strangled (Natural History X.33)." They were then birds of
ill omen (lugubres). Livy mentions at least one instance where the
flight of a raven towards a general from his front, and then calling
out over him, was taken as a good omen. The Romans regarded an owl
(bubo) as an ill omen, unlike the Greeks. Owls were considered by
Romans as funerary birds (funebres) who inhabit the night, the
dessert, and "inaccessible and awesome" places. "As a result of
this," Pliny says (Natural History X.34), "it is a direful omen
whenever seen inside the city or at all in daytime." Other birds
noted for both their calls and observed flights were the picus
martius (woodpecker), feronius, and parrha (a type of owl). (Pliny:
Natural History X.18; Horace: Carmina III.27.15)
The most important aspect of a sign is the direction from which it
comes. Facing south, the flight of birds on the left, and thus in
the east, or from the front in the south, is generally regarded as a
favorable sign. A bird of omen approaching from the right or from
behind is regarded as unfavorable. The same is true for the calls
of birds of good omens, but not always. It is regarded a favorable
sign if a crow (cornix) calls from the left, while the call of a
raven (corvus) is considered favorable if from the right (Plautus:
Asin. II.1.12; Cicero: On Divination 1.39). While an owl (noctua)
is generally regarded as a bird of ill omen, his call from the left
is considered favorable. However in this it is not always that
simple. Every sound and motion a bird makes may hold a different
significance according to the circumstances in which they occur, and
the different times of the year. A good augur will be familiar with
the habits of the various birds in his area. He will look for only
certain signs, but when something out of the ordinary occurs, even
if not by one of the birds specifically used in augury, then he
should take note of it. Interpreting the meaning of the signs is
based on experience. This is made clear by Cicero who says that
divination of any kind depends upon the "frequency of the records"
(On divination 1.109-110). The habits of birds and the significance
they signaled were recorded in different books and these were
consulted when unusual occurrences were seen. Every paterfamilias
kept his own books on omens to use when he was called upon to
perform private auguries.
After designating the templum in the sky an augur will state the
proposed action for which he or she seeks auspices, and in doing so
the augur can stipulate what particular signs will be looked for. If
the proposal falls under the providence of Venus, the augur could
designate that the call or appearance of a dove would be accepted as
a sign, as a dove is a bird sacred to Venus. The augur can just as
easily designate the bark of a dog as a sign were he or she
consulting Hecate, although for auspicia publica this should not be
done as only signs sent from Iuppiter may be considered. Only those
signs which are specifically called to be watched for (imperitiva)
should be considered as a proper sign in the augury. Other natural
events (oblativa), which may occur and could be regarded as omens,
should be noted and used in interpreting the auspices, but not held
to be an auspicium in itself. Such oblativa might be the chance
appearance of some animal, or their unusual behavior. Pliny records
that "indeed augurs, who always think the presence of bees is a bad
omen are not invariably correct (Natural History XI.55)." Normally
such signs of oblativa appearing to the auspex are guarded against
by pitching a tent or erecting a screen (tabernaculum capere) to
block his view, and the playing of flute music to drown out sounds
other than are imperitiva. What an auspex should consider, however,
are common weather signs; as they indicate the circumstances under
which a sign is given, and those signs that are ex caelo. These
latter signs would include the appearance of comets, eclipses, and
other astronomical phenomenon. The most important ex caelo signs to
be kept in mind are the direction from which thunder and lightning
may appear (the maximum auspicium: Servius: Commentary on the Aeneid
by Virgil II.693; Cicero: On divination 2.18). While Iuppiter
thundered and cast His lightning bolts, the comitia could not meet
(Cicero: On Divination 2.14; Philippics V.3). The historical records
stated that thunderbolts were sent in answer to certain prayers and
rites. Numa was said to frequently make prayers to Iuppiter which
were answered by thunderbolts, and Piso added that when Tullius
Hostilius followed in his example, but with too little regard for
the ritual, he was struck by lightning (Pliny: Natural History
II.140). Because the auspicia publica are asked of Iuppiter, and
thunder and lightning are associated with Him, such signs are
regarded to have the same weight if not more than the flights and
calls of birds. In general the sound of thunder or flash of
lightning on the left, or to the front of the auspex is considered a
favorable sign, while those from the right or behind are taken to be
a sign of disapproval. Thunder and lightning occurring out of
season, such as in winter, are especially considered a potent
portent.
The Rule of Four
A method of categorizing and ranking the importance of various signs
is given by the Rule of Four. The system uses four categories of
signs, each of four kinds of signs.
I. Ex Caelo
1. Cloud forms: nimbus, cirrus, stratus, cumulus
2. Precipitation: snows, hail, sleet, rain
3. Lightning, sheet or forked, and thunder, rolling or a clap
4. Light: rainbows, occultation of the sun, moon, or stars,
shooting stars, comets
II. Ex Avibus Alites (flight)
1. Eagle (Jovis ales) and/or Vulture (vultur)
2. Hawk (ossifraga)
3. Crow (cornix)
4. Woodpecker (picus)
III. Ex Avibus Oscines (calls)
1. Raven (corvus) and/or Crow (cornix)
2. Owl (noctua, parrha)
3. Woodpecker (picus Martius)
4. Hen (gallina)
IV. Quadrupedibus
1. Wolf (lupus)
2. Fox (vulpes)
3. Dog (canis)
4. Horse (equus)
If more than one omen is received, and they should contradict one
another, then the higher ranked category and kind has the greater
import. The greater number of equally ranked signs appearing in one
quarter of the templum as opposed to another quarter, likewise takes
precedent. Such was the case in the auguries taken respectively by
Romulus and Remus. Both received favourable auspices of vultures,
yet Romulus received more and was thus judged to become the founder
of Rome.
All birds and animals taken as omens, and the order in which they
are ranked, varies according to the location where the augury is
made. What is given above is based on the ancient texts used at
Rome. In general, a bird or animal that is more rarely seen in a
given locality would be ranked higher. The system used at Rome for
official auguries was recorded in the Libri Augurales, while in the
Commentarii Augurales a collection of interpretations of signs given
in specific cases were kept for future reference. In practice every
paterfamilias maintained his own books, handed down through the
family. Cicero, who was himself an official augur for the state,
mentions a different system of omens used by his friend Divitiacus;
a Druid of the Aedui. In the Druidic system he recognized one
similar to his own, only different in that it used the birds and
animals native to its own location. Through careful observation and
experience, each augur would develop his or her own system.
The possibility of receiving multiple signs raises the question of
how long the auspices should be taken. If ill omens arrive, should
the auspex continue to wait for other signs that might be more
favourable? Once the auspex makes a sound or leaves his seat the
augury ends under any circumstances. How long an auspex should plan
to conduct an augury should be a natural unit of time. A natural
hour (measured by a sundial, not a clock), from dawn to midday or
midday to dusk, or for a full day from dawn to dusk can be used.
Announcing the auspices
The question put to the gods in an augury is made in a straight yes
or no format. "Do you approve of this?" The results of an augury
can therefore only be favorable (nuntiatio) or unfavorable
(obnuntiatio). Auspicia were described as "favourable"
(addictivae), "admitted" or "allowed" (admissivae), "prosperous"
(secundae) or simply as "good omens" (praepetes) when the gods
approved. If favorable the results are announced in a nuntiato,
stating the day the auspices were taken, what was asked, and that
the signs were favorable. "Aves admittunt!" (The birds allow it.)
If the signs were unfavorable, this is announced by saying "Alio
die!" Another day." The auspices may then be taken on another day,
depending on the matter concerned in the inquiry. Ill omens are
described as clivia or clamatoria; the birds giving ill omens
described as "funerary" or "murderous" (funebres), "inhibiting"
(inhibitae), evil (malae), or "disastrous" and "plaintive"
(lugubres). Depending on the question that was asked, unfavourable
omens can indicate that one should "resign" or "abdicate"
(abdicere), be "prevented" from taking the proposed action (arcere),
or that the action itself is "opposed" by the gods (refragari).
Such auguries of the gods' disapproval are named either adversae or
alterae. If no sign is received then it means that the gods are
indifferent to the proposed action. One can proceed without the
approval of the gods in this case, or wait until another day to take
the auspices again.
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